Cao Cao and Yuan Shao fought their final decisive battle in the year 200.In this battle，Cao Cao defeated Yuan Shao and became head of the strongest military grouping in the north.In order to continue his ambition to unify “all under heaven,” in 208 he led his army southward and occupied Jingzhou，coming up against forces of Sun Quan in the lower reaches of the Yangtze River.Just at this time，the fleeing successor to the last Han throne had also raised armies and was attempting a comeback.Liu Bei and Sun joined forces to counter Cao Cao.Liu Bei dispatched his commander Zhuge Liangto persuade Sun Quan and they joined in battle at theBattle of the Red Cliffs.Cao Cao was utterly defeated at this battle and retreated northward，while Liu Bei occupied Jingzhou and later entered Chengdu.In 220，Cao Cao died and his son succeeded Han Xiandi，setting up a country called Wei，also known as Cao Wei.The next year，Liu Bei was proclaimed Emperor in Chengdu with a country name of Han，also Shu Han.In 229，Wu King Sun Quan set up a country called Wu.The era of the three kingdoms officially began，with the three great powers of Cao，Sun and Liu contending for power andforming the three legs of an unstable tripod.The threecountries coexisted for a period of 34 years（229–263），but a situation of contending factions existed for much longer，around 90 years（190–280）.Wei was the strongest of the three in terms of military power，then Wu，with Shu the weakest.Ultimately，the Jin state，which replaced Wei，was successful in uniting the three.Wu lasted longest as a state，for 52 years，then Wei，for 45 years，and then Shu，for 43 years.The Jin Emperor defeated Wu in 280 which brought the epoch of the Three Kingdoms to an end.
Although ceaseless warfare characterized the period of the Three Kingdoms，in their early periods each was intent on restoring order in society，developing their economies and restructuring political systems.Cao Wei’s accomplishments were most outstanding in this regard.When he unified the north，he began a program of“tun-tian”or having peasants and garrisoned soldiers plow up wasteland and grow food，he gradually restored production;he reformed a number of corrupt practicesin government and controlled the power of the largelandholders. He rid the court of powerful eunuchs and broke the autocratic power of their relatives，and he absorbed lower-level landowning-class people into the ranks of government.The Prime Minister of Shu，Zhuge Liang，was known for his strict use of legalism，his discipline, his meting out of punishments and rewards.These contributed to a gradual restoration and development of Shu agriculture and light industry，and to a strengthening of regional power.Particularly as a result of campaigns to the south，national miniority areas began to be developed，and national solidarity began to strengthen. From the year 211, when Sun moved the capital of Wu and began his administration，the southeastern region developed rapidly.Land was brought under cultivation，agriculture developed，government was stable，navigation and trade grew.
The Romance of the Three Kingdoms is ancient China’sfirst long novel，establishing a traditional form in whicheach chapter was headed by a couplet giving a preview of what was to come.It was written by Luo Guanzhong，who lived from around 1330 to1400.The novel described the political and military conflicts of the three states of Wei，Shu，and Wu，and their three leaders，Cao Cao，Liu Bei，and Sun Quan.The three states engaged in plenty of actual fighting with swords and horses，but also in intrigue and cunning，and the“lip-guns”and“tongue swords”of diplomacy at the time are the material for fantastic stories.Among the most famous is the Battle of the Red Cliffs.In addition to vivid portrayals of the three main characters，another featured personality is Zhuge Liang，with his courage，wisdom，and loyalty.He has long since become a timeless model for the ages.Other characters include the outstanding strategist Zhou Yu，the honest and righteous incarnation Guan Yu，the fearless and symbolic Zhang Fei.Chinese people are steeped in these stories and their characters;many phrases have become common sayings and entered daily Chinese usage.Zhuge Liang，Guan Yu and Zhang Fei are literary figures，but Cao Cao and Zhuge Liang also played an important role in official history.Their own poetry is extremely beautiful and has become an important legacy in the cultural inheritance of greater China.
A number of places in China are known as famous sites of the exploits of the Three Kingdoms’heroes.These include the Red Cliffs in Hubei Province，the site of Liu Bei’s leavetaking from this world in Chongqing and the place in Nanjing where Sun Quan locked up Wu.Among these，the most famous and most influential are the temples in commemoration of Zhuge Liang and Guan Yu.
